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<chapter>
  <header>
    <copyright>
      <year>2003</year><year>2021</year>
      <holder>Ericsson AB. All Rights Reserved.</holder>
    </copyright>
    <legalnotice>
      Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
      you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
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    <title>Processes</title>
    <prepared></prepared>
    <docno></docno>
    <date></date>
    <rev></rev>
    <file>processes.xml</file>
  </header>

  <section>
    <title>Processes</title>
    <p>Erlang is designed for massive concurrency. Erlang processes are
      lightweight (grow and shrink dynamically) with small memory
      footprint, fast to create and terminate, and the scheduling
      overhead is low.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Process Creation</title>
    <p>A process is created by calling <c>spawn()</c>:</p>
    <pre>
spawn(Module, Name, Args) -> pid()
  Module = Name = atom()
  Args = [Arg1,...,ArgN]
    ArgI = term()</pre>
    <p><c>spawn()</c> creates a new process and returns the pid.</p>
    <p>The new process starts executing in
      <c>Module:Name(Arg1,...,ArgN)</c> where the arguments are
      the elements of the (possible empty) <c>Args</c> argument list.</p>
    <p>There exist a number of different <c>spawn</c> BIFs:</p>
    <list>
    	<item><seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn/4"><c>spawn/1,2,3,4</c></seemfa></item>
	<item><seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_link/4"><c>spawn_link/1,2,3,4</c></seemfa></item>
	<item><seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_monitor/4"><c>spawn_monitor/1,2,3,4</c></seemfa></item>
	<item><seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_opt/5"><c>spawn_opt/2,3,4,5</c></seemfa></item>
	<item><seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_request/5"><c>spawn_request/1,2,3,4,5</c></seemfa></item>
    </list>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Registered Processes</title>
    <p>Besides addressing a process by using its pid, there are also
      BIFs for registering a process under a name. The name must be an
      atom and is automatically unregistered if the process terminates:</p>
    <table>
      <row>
        <cell align="left" valign="middle"><em>BIF</em></cell>
        <cell align="left" valign="middle"><em>Description</em></cell>
      </row>
      <row>
        <cell align="left" valign="middle"><c>register(Name, Pid)</c></cell>
        <cell align="left" valign="middle">Associates the name <c>Name</c>, an atom, with the process <c>Pid</c>.</cell>
      </row>
      <row>
        <cell align="left" valign="middle"><c>registered()</c></cell>
        <cell align="left" valign="middle">Returns a list of names that
        have been registered using <c>register/2</c>.</cell>
      </row>
      <row>
        <cell align="left" valign="middle"><c>whereis(Name)</c></cell>
        <cell align="left" valign="middle">Returns the pid registered
        under <c>Name</c>, or <c>undefined </c>if the name is not
        registered.</cell>
      </row>
      <tcaption>Name Registration BIFs</tcaption>
    </table>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Process Aliases</title>
    <p>
      When sending a message to a process, the receiving process can be
      identified by a <seeguide marker="data_types#pid">PID</seeguide>,
      a <seeguide marker="#registered-processes">registered name</seeguide>,
      or a <i>process alias</i> which is a term of the type
      <seeguide marker="data_types#reference">reference</seeguide>.
      The typical use case that process aliases were designed for is a
      request/reply scenario. Using a process alias when sending the reply
      makes it possible for the receiver of the reply to prevent the reply
      from reaching its message queue if the operation times out or if the
      connection between the processes is lost.
    </p>
    <p>
      A process alias can be used as identifier of the receiver when
      sending a message using the
      <seeguide marker="expressions#send">send operator <c>!</c></seeguide> or
      send BIFs such as
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#send/2"><c>erlang:send/2</c></seemfa>.
      As long as the process alias is active, messages will be
      delivered the same way as if the process identifier of the process
      that created the alias had been used. When the alias has been
      deactivated, messages sent using the alias will be dropped before
      entering the message queue of the receiver. Note that messages that
      at deactivation time already have entered the message queue will
      <em>not</em> be removed.
    </p>
    <p>
      A process alias is created either by calling one of the
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#alias/0"><c>alias/0,1</c></seemfa>
      BIFs or by creating an alias and a monitor simultaneously. If the
      alias is created together with a monitor, the same reference
      will be used both as monitor reference and alias. Creating
      a monitor and an alias at the same time is done by passing the
      <c>{alias, _}</c> option to the 
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#monitor/3"><c>monitor/3</c></seemfa>
      BIF. The <c>{alias, _}</c> option can also be passed when
      creating a monitor via
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_opt/5"><c>spawn_opt()</c></seemfa>, or
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_request/5"><c>spawn_request()</c></seemfa>.
    </p>
    <p>
      A process alias can be deactivated by the process that created it
      by calling the
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#unalias/1"><c>unalias/1</c></seemfa> BIF.
      It is also possible to automatically deactivate an alias on
      certain events. See the documentation of the
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#alias/1"><c>alias/1</c></seemfa> BIF,
      and the <c>{alias, _}</c> option of the 
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#monitor/3"><c>monitor/3</c></seemfa> BIF
      for more information about automatic deactivation of aliases.
    </p>
    <p>
      It is <em>not</em> possible to:
    </p>
    <list>
      <item>create an alias identifying another process than the caller.</item>
      <item>deactivate an alias unless it identifies the caller.</item>
      <item>look up an alias.</item>
      <item>look up the process identified by an alias.</item>
      <item>check if an alias is active or not.</item>
      <item>check if a reference is an alias.</item>
    </list>
    <p>
      These are all intentional design decisions relating to
      performance, scalability, and distribution transparency.
    </p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <marker id="term"></marker>
    <title>Process Termination</title>
    <p>When a process terminates, it always terminates with an
      <em>exit reason</em>. The reason can be any term.</p>
    <p>A process is said to terminate <em>normally</em>, if the exit
      reason is the atom <c>normal</c>. A process with no more code to
      execute terminates normally.</p>
    <p>A process terminates with an exit reason <c>{Reason,Stack}</c>
      when a run-time error occurs. See
      <seeguide marker="errors#exit_reasons">Exit Reasons</seeguide>.</p>
    <p>A process can terminate itself by calling one of the
       following BIFs:</p>
    <list type="bulleted">
      <item><c>exit(Reason)</c></item>
      <item><c>erlang:error(Reason)</c></item>
      <item><c>erlang:error(Reason, Args)</c></item>
    </list>
    <p>The process then terminates with reason <c>Reason</c> for
      <c>exit/1</c> or <c>{Reason,Stack}</c> for the others.</p>
    <p>A process can also be terminated if it receives an exit signal
      with another exit reason than <c>normal</c>, see
      <seeguide marker="#errors">Error Handling</seeguide>.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Signals</title>
    <p>
      <marker id="message-sending"/>
      All communication between Erlang processes and Erlang ports is done by
      sending and receiving asynchronous signals. The most common signals are
      Erlang message signals. A message signal can be sent using the
      <seeguide marker="expressions#send">send operator <c>!</c></seeguide>.
      A received message can be fetched from the message queue by the
      receiving process using the
      <seeguide marker="expressions#receive"><c>receive</c></seeguide>
      expression.
    </p>

    <marker id="sync-comm"/>
    <p>
      Synchronous communication can be broken down into multiple asynchronous
      signals. An example of such a synchronous communication is a call to the
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#process_info/2"><c>erlang:process_info/2</c></seemfa>
      BIF when the first argument does not equal the process identifier of
      the calling process. The caller sends an asynchronous signal requesting
      information, and then blocks waiting for the reply signal containing
      the requested information. When the request signal reaches its
      destination, the destination process replies with the requested
      information.
    </p>

    <section>
      <title>Sending Signals</title>

      <p>
	There are many signals that processes and ports use to communicate. The list below
	contains the most important signals. In all the
	cases of request/reply signal pairs, the request signal is sent
	by the process calling the specific BIF, and the reply signal is sent
	back to it when the requested operation has been performed.
      </p>
      <taglist>
	<tag><c>message</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent when using the
	  <seeguide marker="expressions#send">send operator <c>!</c></seeguide>,
	  or when calling one of the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#send/2"><c>erlang:send/2,3</c></seemfa>
	  or
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#send_nosuspend/2"><c>erlang:send_nosuspend/2,3</c></seemfa>
	  BIFs.
	</item>

	<tag><c>link</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent when calling the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#link/1">link/1</seemfa> BIF.
	</item>

	<tag><c>unlink</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent when calling the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#unlink/1">unlink/1</seemfa> BIF.
	</item>

	<tag><c>exit</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent either when explicitly sending an <c>exit</c> signal by
	  calling the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#exit/2">exit/2</seemfa> BIF, or when
	  a <seeguide marker="#sending_exit_signals">linked process
	  terminates</seeguide>. If the signal is sent due to a link, the
	  signal is sent after all <seeguide marker="#visible-resources">
	  <i>directly visible Erlang resources</i></seeguide> used by the
	  process have been released.
	</item>

	<tag><c>monitor</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent when calling one of the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#monitor/3">monitor/2,3</seemfa> BIFs.
	</item>

	<tag><c>demonitor</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent when calling one of the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#demonitor/1">demonitor/1,2</seemfa>
	  BIFs, or when a process monitoring another process terminates.
	</item>

	<tag><c>down</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent by a <seeguide marker="#monitors">monitored process or
	  port that terminates</seeguide>. The signal is sent after
	  all <seeguide marker="#visible-resources"><i>directly visible
	  Erlang resources</i></seeguide> used by the process or the port
	  have been released.
	</item>

	<tag><c>change</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent by the <seeguide marker="#runtime-service">clock
	  service</seeguide>  on the local runtime system, when the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#time_offset/0">time offset</seemfa>
	  changes, to processes which have
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#monitor/2">monitored the
	  <c>time_offset</c></seemfa>.
	</item>

	<tag><c>group_leader</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent when calling the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#group_leader/2">group_leader/2</seemfa>
	  BIF.
	</item>

	<tag>
	  <c>spawn_request</c>/<c>spawn_reply</c>,
	  <c>open_port_request</c>/<c>open_port_reply</c>
	</tag>
	<item>
	  Sent due to a call to one of the
    	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn/4"><c>spawn/1,2,3,4</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_link/4"><c>spawn_link/1,2,3,4</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_monitor/4"><c>spawn_monitor/1,2,3,4</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_opt/5"><c>spawn_opt/2,3,4,5</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_request/5"><c>spawn_request/1,2,3,4,5</c></seemfa>,
	  or <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#open_port/2"><c>erlang:open_port/2</c></seemfa>
	  BIFs. The request signal is sent to the
	  <seeguide marker="#runtime-service">spawn service</seeguide> which
	  responds with the reply signal.
	</item>

	<tag><c>alive_request</c>/<c>alive_reply</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent due to a call to the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#is_process_alive/1">is_process_alive/1</seemfa>
	  BIF.
	</item>

	<tag>
	  <c>garbage_collect_request</c>/<c>garbage_collect_reply</c>,
	  <c>check_process_code_request</c>/<c>check_process_code_reply</c>,
	  <c>process_info_request</c>/<c>process_info_reply</c>
	</tag>
	<item>
	  Sent due to a call to one of the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#garbage_collect/1">garbage_collect/1,2</seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#check_process_code/2">erlang:check_process_code/2,3</seemfa>,
	  or <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#process_info/2">process_info/1,2</seemfa>
	  BIFs. Note that if the request is directed towards the caller itself
	  and it is a synchronous request, no signaling will be performed
	  and the caller will instead synchronously perform the request before
	  returning from the BIF.
	</item>

	<tag><c>port_command</c>, <c>port_connect</c>, <c>port_close</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Sent by a process to a port on the local node using the
	  <seeguide marker="expressions#send">send operator <c>!</c></seeguide>,
	  or by calling one of the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#send/2"><c>send()</c></seemfa>
	  BIFs. The signal is sent by passing a term on the format
	  <c>{Owner, {command, Data}}</c>, <c>{Owner, {connect, Pid}}</c>,
	  or <c>{Owner, close}</c> as message.
	</item>

	<tag>
	  <c>port_command_request</c>/<c>port_command_reply</c>,
	  <c>port_connect_request</c>/<c>port_connect_reply</c>,
	  <c>port_close_request</c>/<c>port_close_reply</c>,
	  <c>port_control_request</c>/<c>port_control_reply</c>,
	  <c>port_call_request</c>/<c>port_call_reply</c>,
	  <c>port_info_request</c>/<c>port_info_reply</c>
	</tag>
	<item>
	  Sent due to a call to one of the
 	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#port_command/2"><c>erlang:port_command/2,3</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#port_connect/2"><c>erlang:port_connect/2</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#port_close/1"><c>erlang:port_close/1</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#port_control/3"><c>erlang:port_control/3</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#port_call/3"><c>erlang:port_call/3</c></seemfa>,
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#port_info/1"><c>erlang:port_info/1,2</c></seemfa>
	  BIFs. The request signal is sent to a port on the local node which
	  responds with the reply signal.
	</item>

        <tag>
          <c>register_name_request</c>/<c>register_name_reply</c>,
	  <c>unregister_name_request</c>/<c>unregister_name_reply</c>,
	  <c>whereis_name_request</c>/<c>whereis_name_reply</c>
	</tag>
	<item>
	  Sent due to a call to one of the
          <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#register/2"><c>register/2</c></seemfa>,
          <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#unregister/1"><c>unregister/1</c></seemfa>,
	  or
          <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#whereis/1"><c>whereis/1</c></seemfa>
	  BIFs. The request signal is sent to the
	  <seeguide marker="#runtime-service">name service</seeguide>, which
	  responds with the reply signal.
	</item>

	<tag>
	  <c>timer_start_request</c>/<c>timer_start_reply</c>,
	  <c>timer_cancel_request</c>/<c>timer_cancel_reply</c>
	</tag>
	<item>
	  Sent due to a call to one of the
          <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#send_after/3"><c>erlang:send_after/3,4</c></seemfa>,
          <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#start_timer/3"><c>erlang:start_timer/3,4</c></seemfa>,
	  or
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#cancel_timer/1"><c>erlang:cancel_timer/1,2</c></seemfa>
	  BIFs. The request signal is sent to the
	  <seeguide marker="#runtime-service">timer service</seeguide> which
	  responds with the reply signal.
	</item>

      </taglist>

      <p><marker id="runtime-service"/>
        The clock service, the name service, the timer service, and the spawn
        service mentioned previously are services provided by the runtime system.
        Each of these services consists of multiple independently executing
        entities. Such a service can be viewed as a group of processes, and
        could actually be implemented like that. Since each service consists of
        multiple independently executing entities, the order between multiple
        signals sent from one service to one process is <em>not</em> preserved. Note
	that this does <em>not</em> violate the
	<seeguide marker="#signal-delivery">signal ordering
	guarantee</seeguide> of the language.
      </p>

      <p>
	The realization of the signals described above may change both at
	runtime and due to changes in implementation. You may be able to
	detect such changes using <c>receive</c> tracing or by inspecting
	message queues. However, these are internal implementation details of
	the runtime system that you should <em>not</em> rely on. As an example,
	many of the reply signals above are ordinary message signals.
	When the operation is synchronous, the reply signals do not have to be
	message signals. The current implementation takes advantage of this
	and, depending on the state of the system, use alternative ways of
	delivering the reply signals. The implementation of these reply signals
	may also, at any time, be changed to not use message signals where it
	previously did.
      </p>

    </section>

    <section>
      <title>Receiving Signals</title>
      <p>
	Signals are received asynchronously and automatically. There is nothing
	a process must do to handle the reception of signals, or can do to
	prevent it. In particular, signal reception is <em>not</em> tied to the
	execution of a
	<seeguide marker="expressions#receive"><c>receive</c></seeguide>
	expression, but can happen anywhere in the execution flow of a process.
      </p>
      <p>
	When a signal is received by a process, some kind of action is
	taken. The specific action taken depends on the signal type,
	contents of the signal, and the state of the receiving process.
	Actions taken for the most common signals:
      </p>
      <taglist>
	<tag><c>message</c></tag>
	<item>
	  If the message signal was sent using a
	  <seeguide marker="#process-aliases">process alias</seeguide>
	  that is no longer active, the message signal will be dropped;
	  otherwise, if the alias is still active or the message signal
	  was sent by other means, the message is added to the end of the
	  message queue. When the message has been added to the message
	  queue, the receiving process can fetch the message from the
	  message queue using the
	  <seeguide marker="expressions#receive"><c>receive</c></seeguide>
	  expression.
	</item>

	<tag><c>link</c>, <c>unlink</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Very simplified it can be viewed as updating process local
	  information about the link. A detailed description of the
	  <seeguide marker="erts:erl_dist_protocol#link_protocol">link
	  protocol</seeguide> can be found in the <i>Distribution Protocol</i>
	  chapter of the <i>ERTS User's Guide</i>.
	</item>

	<tag><c>exit</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Set the receiver in an exiting state, drop the signal, or convert
	  the signal into a message and add it to the end of the message
	  queue. If the receiver is set in an exiting state, no more Erlang
	  code will be executed and the process is scheduled for termination.
	  The section <seeguide marker="#receiving_exit_signals"><i>Receiving
	  Exit Signals</i></seeguide> below gives more details on the
	  action taken when an <c>exit</c> signal is received.
	</item>

	<tag><c>monitor</c>, <c>demonitor</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Update process local information about the monitor.
	</item>

	<tag><c>down</c>, <c>change</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Convert into a message if the corresponding monitor is still
	  active; otherwise, drop the signal. If the signal is converted
	  into a message, it is also added to the end of the message
	  queue.
	</item>

	<tag><c>group_leader</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Change the group leader of the process.
	</item>

	<tag><c>spawn_reply</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Convert into a message, or drop the signal depending on the reply
	  and how the <c>spawn_request</c> signal was configured. If the
	  signal is converted into a message it is also added to the end
	  of the message queue. For more information see the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_request/5"><c>spawn_request()</c></seemfa>
	  BIF.
	</item>

	<tag><c>alive_request</c></tag>
	<item>
	  Schedule execution of the <i>is alive</i> test. If the process
	  is in an exiting state, the <i>is alive</i> test will not be
	  executed until after all
	  <seeguide marker="#visible-resources"><i>directly visible Erlang
	  resources</i></seeguide> used by the process have been released.
	  The <c>alive_reply</c> will be sent after the <i>is alive</i>
	  test has executed.
	</item>
	
	<tag>
	  <c>process_info_request</c>,
	  <c>garbage_collect_request</c>,
	  <c>check_process_code_request</c>
	</tag>
	<item>
	  Schedule execution of the requested operation. The reply signal
	  will be sent when the operation has been executed.
	</item>
      </taglist>
      <p>
	Note that some actions taken when a signal is received involves
	<em>scheduling</em> further actions which will result in a reply
	signal when these scheduled actions have completed. This implies that
	the reply signals may be sent in a different order than the order of
	the incoming signals that triggered these operations. This does,
	however, <em>not</em> violate the
	<seeguide marker="#signal-delivery">signal ordering
	guarantee</seeguide> of the language.
      </p>

      <marker id="message-queue-order"/>
      <p>
	The order of messages in the message queue of a process reflects the
	order in which the signals corresponding to the messages has been
	received since <seeguide marker="processes#receiving-signals">all
	signals	that add messages to the message queue add them at the end of
	the message queue</seeguide>. Messages corresponding to signals from
	the same sender are also ordered in the same order as the signals were
	sent due to the <seeguide marker="processes#signal-delivery">signal
	ordering guarantee</seeguide> of the language.
      </p>

    </section>
    
    <section>
      <marker id="visible-resources"/>
      <title>Directly Visible Erlang Resources</title>
      <p>
	As described above, <c>exit</c> signals due to links, <c>down</c>
	signals, and reply signals from an exiting process due to
	<c>alive_request</c>s are not sent until all <i>directly visible
	Erlang resources</i> held by the terminating process have been
	released. With <i>directly visible Erlang resources</i> we here mean
	all resources made available by the language excluding resources held
	by heap data, dirty native code execution and the process identifier of
	the terminating process. Examples of <i>directly visible Erlang
	resources</i> are <seeguide marker="#registered-processes">registered
	name</seeguide> and <seeerl marker="stdlib:ets">ETS</seeerl> tables.
      </p>
      <section>
	<title>The Excluded Resources</title>
	<p>
	  The process identifier of the process cannot be released for
	  reuse until everything regarding the process has been released.
	</p>
	<p>
	  A process executing dirty native code in a NIF when it receives
	  an exit signal will be set into an exiting state even if it is
	  still executing dirty native code. <i>Directly visible Erlang
	  resources</i> will be released, but the runtime system cannot
	  force the native code to stop executing. The runtime system tries
	  to prevent the execution of the dirty native code from effecting
	  other processes by, for example, disabling functionality such as
	  <seecref marker="erts:erl_nif#enif_send"><c>enif_send()</c></seecref>
	  when used from a terminated process, but if the NIF is not well
	  behaved it can still effect other processes. A well behaved dirty
	  NIF should test if
	  <seecref marker="erts:erl_nif#enif_is_current_process_alive">the
	  process it is executing in has exited</seecref>, and if so stop
	  executing.
	</p>
	<p>
	  In the general case, the heap of a process cannot be removed before
	  all signals that it needs to send have been sent. Resources held
	  by heap data are the memory blocks containing the heap, but also
	  include things referred to from the heap such as off heap binaries,
	  and resources held via NIF
	  <seecref marker="erts:erl_nif#resource_objects">resource
	  objects</seecref> on the heap.
	</p>
      </section>
    </section>

    <section>
      <marker id="signal-delivery"/>
      <title>Delivery of Signals</title>
      <p>
	The amount of time that passes between the time a signal is sent and
	the arrival of the signal at the destination is unspecified but
	positive. If the receiver has terminated, the signal does not arrive,
	but it can trigger another signal. For example, a <c>link</c> signal
	sent to a non-existing process triggers an <c>exit</c> signal, which
	is sent back to where the <c>link</c> signal originated from. When
	communicating over the distribution, signals can be lost if the
	distribution channel goes down.
      </p>

      <p>
	The only signal ordering guarantee given is the following: if an
	entity sends multiple signals to the same destination entity, the
	order is preserved; that is, if <c>A</c> sends a signal <c>S1</c> to
	<c>B</c>, and later sends signal <c>S2</c> to <c>B</c>, <c>S1</c> is
	guaranteed not to arrive after <c>S2</c>. Note that <c>S1</c> may,
	or may not have been lost.
      </p>
    </section>

    <section>
      <marker id="signal-irregularities"/>
      <title>Irregularities</title>
      <taglist>
	<tag>Synchronous Error Checking</tag>
	<item>
	  <p>
	    Some functionality that send signals have synchronous error
	    checking when sending locally on a node and fail if the receiver
	    is not present at the time when the signal is sent:
	  </p>
	  <list>
	    <item>
	      The <seeguide marker="expressions#send">send operator
	      <c>!</c></seeguide>,
	      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#send/2"><c>erlang:send/2,3</c></seemfa>,
	      BIFs and
	      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#send_nosuspend/2"><c>erlang:send_nosuspend/2,3</c></seemfa>
	      BIFs when the receiver is identified by a name that is
	      expected to be registered locally.
	    </item>
	    <item>
	      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#link/1"><c>erlang:link/1</c></seemfa>
	    </item>
	    <item>
	      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#group_leader/2"><c>erlang:group_leader/2</c></seemfa>
	    </item>
	  </list>
	  <p></p>
	</item>
	<tag>Unexpected Behaviours of Exit Signals</tag>
	<item>
	  <p>
	    When a process sends an exit signal with exit reason <c>normal</c>
	    to itself by calling <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#exit/2"><c>erlang:exit(self(),
	    normal)</c></seemfa> it will be terminated
	    <seeguide marker="#receiving_exit_signals">when the <c>exit</c> signal
	    is received</seeguide>. In all other cases when an exit signal with
	    exit reason <c>normal</c> is received, it is dropped.
	  </p>
	  <p>
	    When an <seeguide marker="#receiving_exit_signals"><c>exit</c> signal
	    with exit reason <c>kill</c> is received</seeguide>,
	    the action taken is different depending on whether the signal was
	    sent due to a linked process terminating, or the signal was
	    explicitly sent using the
	    <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#exit/2"><c>exit/2</c></seemfa> BIF. When
	    sent using the <c>exit/2</c> BIF, the signal cannot be
	    <seeerl marker="erts:erlang#process_flag_trap_exit">trapped</seeerl>,
	    while it can be trapped if the signal was sent due to a link.
	  </p>
	</item>
	<tag>Blocking Signaling Over Distribution</tag>
	<item>
	  <p>
	    When sending a signal over a distribution channel, the sending
	    process may be suspended even though the signal is supposed to be
	    sent asynchronously. This is due to the built in flow control over
	    the channel that has been present more or less for ever. When the
	    size of the output buffer for the channel reach the <i>distribution
	    buffer busy limit</i>, processes sending on the channel will be
	    suspended until the size of the buffer shrinks below the limit.
	    The size of the limit can be inspected by calling
	    <seeerl marker="erts:erlang#system_info_dist_buf_busy_limit">
	      <c>erlang:system_info(dist_buf_busy_limit)</c></seeerl>.
	    Since this functionality has been present for so long, it is not
	    possible to remove it, but it is possible to increase the limit
	    to a point where it more or less never is reached using the
	    <c>erl</c> command line argument
	    <seecom marker="erts:erl#+zdbbl"><c>+zdbbl</c></seecom>. Note
	    that if you do raise the limit like this, you need to take care
	    of flow control yourself to ensure that you do not get into a
	    situation with excessive memory usage.
	  </p>
	</item>
      </taglist>
      <p>
	The irregularities mentioned above cannot be fixed as they have been
	part of Erlang too long and it would break a lot of existing code.
      </p>
    </section>

  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Links</title>
    <p>
      Two processes can be <em>linked</em> to each other. Also a
      process and a port that reside on the same node can be linked
      to each other. A link between two processes can be created
      if one of them calls the
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#link/1"><c>link/1</c></seemfa> BIF
      with the process identifier of the other process as argument.
      Links can also be created using one the following spawn BIFs
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_link/4"><c>spawn_link()</c></seemfa>,
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_opt/5"><c>spawn_opt()</c></seemfa>, or
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_request/5"><c>spawn_request()</c></seemfa>.
      The spawn operation and the link operation will 
      be performed atomically, in these cases.
    </p>
    <p>
      If one of the participants of a link terminates, it will
      <seeguide marker="system/reference_manual:processes#sending_exit_signals">send
      an exit signal</seeguide> to the other participant. The exit
      signal will contain the
      <seeguide marker="system/reference_manual:processes#link_exit_signal_reason">exit
      reason</seeguide> of the terminated participant.
    </p>
    <p>
      A link can be removed by calling the
      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#unlink/1"><c>unlink/1</c></seemfa>
      BIF.
    </p>
    <p>
      Links are bidirectional and there can only be one link between
      two processes. Repeated calls to <c>link()</c> have no effect.
      Either one of the involved processes may create or remove a
      link.
    </p>
    <p>Links are used to monitor the behavior of other processes, see
      <seeguide marker="#errors">Error Handling</seeguide>.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <marker id="errors"></marker>
    <title>Error Handling</title>
    <p>Erlang has a built-in feature for error handling between
      processes. Terminating processes emit exit signals to all
      linked processes, which can terminate as well or handle the exit
      in some way. This feature can be used to build hierarchical
      program structures where some processes are supervising other
      processes, for example, restarting them if they terminate
      abnormally.</p>
    <p>See <seeguide marker="system/design_principles:des_princ#otp design principles">
      OTP Design Principles</seeguide> for more information about
      OTP supervision trees, which use this feature.</p>

    <section>
      <marker id="sending_exit_signals"/>
      <title>Sending Exit Signals</title>
      <p>
	When a process or port
	<seeguide marker="#term">terminates</seeguide> it will
	send exit signals to all processes and ports that it
	is <seeguide marker="#links">linked</seeguide> to.
	The exit signal will contain the following information:
      </p>
      <taglist>
	<tag>Sender identifier</tag>
	<item><p>
	  The process or port identifier of the process or port
	  that terminated.
	</p></item>
	<tag>Receiver identifier</tag>
	<item><p>
	  The process or port identifier of the process or port
	  which the exit signal is sent to.
	</p></item>
	<tag>The <c>link</c> flag</tag>
	<item><p>
	  This flag will be set indicating that the exit signal
	  was sent due to a link.
	</p></item>
	<tag><marker id="link_exit_signal_reason"/>Exit reason</tag>
	<item><p>
	  The exit reason of the process or port that
	  terminated or the atom:</p>
	  <list>
	    <item><p>
	      <c>noproc</c> in case no process or port was
	      found when setting up a link in a preceding
	      call to the
	      <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#link/1"><c>link(PidOrPort)</c></seemfa>
	      BIF. The process or port identified as sender
	      of the exit signal will equal the <c>PidOrPort</c>
	      argument passed to <c>link/1</c>.
	    </p></item>
	    <item><p>
	      <c>noconnection</c> in case the linked
	      processes resides on different nodes and
	      the connection between the nodes was lost or
	      could not be established. The process or port
	      identified as sender of the exit signal might
	      in this case still be alive.
	    </p></item>
	  </list>
	</item>
      </taglist>
      
      <p>
	Exit signals can also be sent explicitly by calling the
	<seemfa marker="erts:erlang#exit/2"><c>exit(PidOrPort,
	Reason)</c></seemfa> BIF. The exit signal is sent to the
	process or port identified by the <c>PidOrPort</c> argument.
	The exit signal sent will contain the following information:
      </p>
      <taglist>
	<tag>Sender identifier</tag>
	<item><p>
	  The process identifier of the process that called
	  <c>exit/2</c>.
	</p></item>
	<tag>Receiver identifier</tag>
	<item><p>
	  The process or port identifier of the process or port
	  which the exit signal is sent to.
	</p></item>
	<tag>The <c>link</c> flag</tag>
	<item><p>
	  This flag will not be set, indicating that this exit
	  signal was not sent due to a link.
	</p></item>
	<tag>Exit reason</tag>
	<item><p>
	  The term passed as <c>Reason</c> in the call to
	  <c>exit/2</c>. If <c>Reason</c> is the atom <c>kill</c>,
	  the receiver cannot
	  <seeerl marker="erts:erlang#process_flag_trap_exit">trap
	  the exit</seeerl> signal and will unconditionally
	  terminate when it receives the signal.
	</p></item>
      </taglist>
    </section>

    <section>
      <marker id="receiving_exit_signals"/>
      <title>Receiving Exit Signals</title>

      <p>What happens when a process receives an exit signal depends on:</p>
      <list>
	<item><p>
	  The <seeerl marker="erts:erlang#process_flag_trap_exit">trap exit</seeerl>
	  state of the receiver at the time when the exit signal is received.
	</p></item>
	<item><p>
	  The exit reason of the exit signal.
	</p></item>
	<item><p>
	  The sender of the exit signal.
	</p></item>
	<item><p>
	  The state of the <c>link</c> flag of the exit signal. If the
	  <c>link</c> flag is set, the exit signal was sent due to a
	  link; otherwise, the exit signal was sent by a call to the
	  <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#exit/2"><c>exit/2</c></seemfa> BIF.
	</p></item>
	<item><p>
	  If the <c>link</c> flag is set, what happens also depends on
	  whether the <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#unlink/1">link is still active
	  or not</seemfa> when the exit signal is received.
	</p></item>
      </list>

      <p>
	Based on the above states, the following will happen when an
	exit signal is received by a process:
      </p>
      <list>
	<item>
	  <p>The exit signal is silently dropped if:</p>
	  <list>
	    <item><p>
	      the <c>link</c> flag of the exit signal is set and
	      the corresponding link has been deactivated.
	    </p></item>
	    <item><p>
	      the exit reason of the exit signal is the atom <c>normal</c>,
	      the receiver is not trapping exits, and the receiver and
	      sender are not the same process.
	    </p></item>
	  </list>
	</item>
	<item>
	  <p>The receiving process is terminated if:</p>
	  <list>
	    <item><p>
	      the <c>link</c> flag of the exit signal
	      is not set, and the exit reason of the exit signal
	      is the atom <c>kill</c>. The receiving process will
	      terminate with the atom <c>killed</c> as exit reason.
	    </p></item>
	    <item><p>
	      the receiver is not trapping exits, and the exit
	      reason is something other than the atom <c>normal</c>.
	      Also, if the <c>link</c> flag of the exit signal
	      is set, the link also needs to be active otherwise the
	      exit signal will be dropped. The exit reason of the
	      receiving process will equal the exit reason of the
	      exit signal. Note that if the <c>link</c> flag
	      is set, an exit reason of <c>kill</c> will <em>not</em>
	      be converted to <c>killed</c>.
	    </p></item>
	    <item><p>
	      the exit reason of the exit signal is the atom
	      <c>normal</c> and the sender of the exit signal is
	      the same process as the receiver. The <c>link</c>
	      flag cannot be set in this case. The exit reason
	      of the receiving process will be the atom <c>normal</c>.
	    </p></item>
	  </list>
	</item>
	<item>
	  <p>
	    The exit signal is converted to a message signal and
	    added to the end of the message queue of the receiver, if the
	    receiver is trapping exits, the <c>link</c> flag
	    of the exit signal is:
	  </p>
	    <list>
	      <item><p>
		not set, and the exit reason of the signal is not
		the atom <c>kill</c>.
	      </p></item>
	      <item><p>
		set, and the corresponding link is active.
		Note that an exit reason of <c>kill</c> will
		<em>not</em> terminate the process in this
		case and it will not be converted to
		<c>killed</c>.
	      </p></item>
	    </list>
	    <p>
	      The converted message will be on the form
	      <c>{'EXIT', SenderID, Reason}</c> where <c>Reason</c>
	      equals the exit reason of the exit signal and
	      <c>SenderID</c> is the identifier of the process
	      or port that sent the exit signal.
	    </p>
	</item>
      </list>
    </section>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Monitors</title>
    <p>An alternative to links are <em>monitors</em>. A process
      <c>Pid1</c> can create a monitor for <c>Pid2</c> by calling
      the BIF <c>erlang:monitor(process, Pid2)</c>. The function returns
      a reference <c>Ref</c>.</p>
    <p>If <c>Pid2</c> terminates with exit reason <c>Reason</c>, a
      'DOWN' message is sent to <c>Pid1</c>:</p>
    <code type="none">
{'DOWN', Ref, process, Pid2, Reason}</code>
    <p>If <c>Pid2</c> does not exist, the 'DOWN' message is sent
      immediately with <c>Reason</c> set to <c>noproc</c>.</p>
    <p>Monitors are unidirectional. Repeated calls to
      <c>erlang:monitor(process, Pid)</c> creates several
      independent monitors, and each one sends a 'DOWN' message when
      <c>Pid</c> terminates.</p>
    <p>A monitor can be removed by calling
      <c>erlang:demonitor(Ref)</c>.</p>
    <p>Monitors can be created for processes with registered
      names, also at other nodes.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Process Dictionary</title>
    <p>Each process has its own process dictionary, accessed by calling
      the following BIFs:</p>
    <pre>
put(Key, Value)
get(Key)
get()
get_keys(Value)
erase(Key)
erase()</pre>
  </section>
</chapter>
