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<!DOCTYPE erlref SYSTEM "erlref.dtd">

<erlref>
  <header>
    <copyright>
      <year>2004</year><year>2021</year>
      <holder>Ericsson AB. All Rights Reserved.</holder>
    </copyright>
    <legalnotice>
      Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
      you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
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          http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0

      Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
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    </legalnotice>

    <title>qlc</title>
    <prepared>Hans Bolinder</prepared>
    <responsible></responsible>
    <docno></docno>
    <approved></approved>
    <checked></checked>
    <date>2004-08-25</date>
    <rev>PA1</rev>
    <file>qlc.xml</file>
  </header>
  <module since="">qlc</module>
  <modulesummary>Query interface to Mnesia, ETS, Dets, and so on.
  </modulesummary>
  <description>
    <p>This module provides a query interface to
      <seeerl marker="mnesia:mnesia">Mnesia</seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="ets">ETS</seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="dets">Dets</seeerl>,
      and other data structures that provide an iterator style
      traversal of objects.</p>
  </description>

  <section>
    <title>Overview</title>
    <p>This module provides a query interface to <em>QLC
      tables</em>. Typical QLC tables are Mnesia, ETS, and
      Dets tables. Support is also provided for user-defined tables, see section
      <seeerl marker="#implementing_a_qlc_table">
      Implementing a QLC Table</seeerl>.
      <marker id="query_list_comprehension"></marker>
      A <em>query</em> is expressed using
      <em>Query List Comprehensions</em> (QLCs). The answers to a
      query are determined by data in QLC tables that fulfill the
      constraints expressed by the QLCs of the query. QLCs are similar
      to ordinary list comprehensions as described in
      <seeguide marker="system/reference_manual:expressions#lcs">
      Erlang Reference Manual</seeguide> and
      <seeguide marker="system/programming_examples:list_comprehensions">
      Programming Examples</seeguide>, except that variables
      introduced in patterns cannot be used in list expressions.
      In the absence of optimizations and options such as
      <c>cache</c> and <c>unique</c> (see section
      <seeerl marker="#common_options">Common Options</seeerl>, every
      QLC free of QLC tables evaluates to the same list of answers as the
      identical ordinary list comprehension.</p>

    <p>While ordinary list comprehensions evaluate to lists, calling
      <seemfa marker="#q/1"><c>q/1,2</c></seemfa> returns a
      <marker id="query_handle"></marker><em>query handle</em>.
      To obtain all the answers to a query, <seemfa marker="#eval/1">
      <c>eval/1,2</c></seemfa> is to be called with the
      query handle as first argument. Query handles are essentially
      functional objects (funs) created in the module calling <c>q/1,2</c>.
      As the funs refer to the module code, be careful not to keep query
      handles too long if the module code is to be replaced.
      Code replacement is described in section
      <seeguide marker="system/reference_manual:code_loading">
      Compilation and Code Loading</seeguide> in the Erlang Reference Manual.
      The list of answers can also be traversed in chunks by use of a
      <marker id="query_cursor"></marker><em>query cursor</em>.
      Query cursors are created by calling
      <seemfa marker="#cursor/1"><c>cursor/1,2</c></seemfa> with a query
      handle as first argument. Query cursors are essentially Erlang processes.
      One answer at a time is sent from the query cursor process to
      the process that created the cursor.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Syntax</title>
    <p>Syntactically QLCs have the same parts as ordinary list
      comprehensions:</p>

    <code type="none">
[Expression || Qualifier1, Qualifier2, ...]</code>

    <p><c>Expression</c> (the <em>template</em>) is any
      Erlang expression. Qualifiers are either <em>filters</em> or
      <em>generators</em>. Filters are Erlang expressions returning
      <c>boolean()</c>. Generators have the form
      <c><![CDATA[Pattern <- ListExpression]]></c>, where
      <c>ListExpression</c> is an expression evaluating to a query
      handle or a list. Query handles are returned from
      <seemfa marker="#append/1"><c>append/1,2</c></seemfa>,
      <seemfa marker="#keysort/2"><c>keysort/2,3</c></seemfa>,
      <seemfa marker="#q/1"><c>q/1,2</c></seemfa>,
      <seemfa marker="#sort/1"><c>sort/1,2</c></seemfa>,
      <seemfa marker="#string_to_handle/1">
      <c>string_to_handle/1,2,3</c></seemfa>, and
      <seemfa marker="#table/2"><c>table/2</c></seemfa>.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Evaluation</title>
    <p>A query handle is evaluated in the following order:</p>

    <list type="bulleted">
      <item>
        <p>Inspection of options and the collection of information about
          tables. As a result, qualifiers are modified during the optimization
          phase.</p>
      </item>
      <item>
        <p>All list expressions are evaluated. If a cursor has been created,
          evaluation takes place in the cursor process. For list expressions
          that are QLCs, the list expressions of the generators of the QLCs
          are evaluated as well. Be careful if list expressions have side
          effects, as list expressions are evaluated in unspecified order.</p>
      </item>
      <item>
        <p>The answers are found by evaluating the qualifiers from left to
          right, backtracking when some filter returns <c>false</c>, or
          collecting the template when all filters return <c>true</c>.</p>
      </item>
    </list>

    <p>Filters that do not return <c>boolean()</c> but fail are handled
      differently depending on their syntax: if the filter is a guard,
      it returns <c>false</c>, otherwise the query evaluation fails.
      This behavior makes it possible for the <c>qlc</c> module to do
      some optimizations without affecting the meaning of a query. For
      example, when testing some position of a table and one or more
      constants for equality, only
      the objects with equal values are candidates for further
      evaluation. The other objects are guaranteed to make the filter
      return <c>false</c>, but never fail. The (small) set of
      candidate objects can often be found by looking up some key
      values of the table or by traversing the table using a match
      specification. It is necessary to place the guard filters
      immediately after the table generator, otherwise the candidate
      objects are not restricted to a small set. The reason is
      that objects that could make the query evaluation fail must not
      be excluded by looking up a key or running a match specification.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Join</title>
    <p>The <c>qlc</c> module supports fast join of two query handles.
      Fast join is possible if some position <c>P1</c> of one query
      handler and some position <c>P2</c> of another query handler are
      tested for equality. Two fast join methods are provided:</p>

    <list type="bulleted">
      <item><p><em>Lookup join</em> traverses all objects of one query handle
         and finds objects of the other handle (a QLC table) such that the
         values at <c>P1</c> and <c>P2</c> match or compare equal.
         The <c>qlc</c> module does not create
         any indexes but looks up values using the key position and
         the indexed positions of the QLC table.</p>
      </item>
      <item><p><em>Merge join</em> sorts the objects of each query handle if
         necessary and filters out objects where the values at
         <c>P1</c> and <c>P2</c> do not compare equal. If
         many objects with the same value of <c>P2</c> exist, a temporary
         file is used for the equivalence classes.</p>
      </item>
    </list>

    <p>The <c>qlc</c> module warns at compile time if a QLC
      combines query handles in such a way that more than one join is
      possible. That is, no query planner is provided that can
      select a good order between possible join operations. It is up
      to the user to order the joins by introducing query handles.</p>

    <p>The join is to be expressed as a guard filter. The filter must
      be placed immediately after the two joined generators, possibly
      after guard filters that use variables from no other generators
      but the two joined generators. The <c>qlc</c> module inspects
      the operands of
      <c>=:=/2</c>, <c>==/2</c>, <c>is_record/2</c>, <c>element/2</c>,
      and logical operators (<c>and/2</c>, <c>or/2</c>,
      <c>andalso/2</c>, <c>orelse/2</c>, <c>xor/2</c>) when
      determining which joins to consider.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <marker id="common_options"></marker>
    <title>Common Options</title>
    <p>The following options are accepted by
    <seemfa marker="#cursor/2"><c>cursor/2</c></seemfa>,
    <seemfa marker="#eval/2"><c>eval/2</c></seemfa>,
    <seemfa marker="#fold/4"><c>fold/4</c></seemfa>, and
    <seemfa marker="#info/2"><c>info/2</c></seemfa>:</p>

    <list type="bulleted">
      <item><p><c>{cache_all, Cache}</c>, where <c>Cache</c> is
        equal to <c>ets</c> or <c>list</c> adds a
        <c>{cache,&nbsp;Cache}</c> option to every list expression
        of the query except tables and lists. Defaults to
        <c>{cache_all,&nbsp;no}</c>. Option <c>cache_all</c> is
        equivalent to <c>{cache_all,&nbsp;ets}</c>.</p>
      </item>
      <item><p><marker id="max_list_size"></marker><c>{max_list_size,
        MaxListSize}</c>, where <c>MaxListSize</c> is the
        size in bytes of terms on the external format. If the
        accumulated size of collected objects exceeds
        <c>MaxListSize</c>, the objects are written onto a temporary
        file. This option is used by option <c>{cache,&nbsp;list}</c>
        and by the merge join method. Defaults to 512*1024 bytes.</p>
      </item>
      <item><p><c>{tmpdir_usage, TmpFileUsage}</c> determines the
        action taken when <c>qlc</c> is about to create temporary
        files on the directory set by option <c>tmpdir</c>. If the
        value is <c>not_allowed</c>, an error tuple is returned,
        otherwise temporary files are created as needed. Default is
        <c>allowed</c>, which means that no further action is taken.
        The values <c>info_msg</c>, <c>warning_msg</c>, and
        <c>error_msg</c> mean that the function with the corresponding
        name in module
        <seeerl marker="kernel:error_logger"><c>error_logger</c></seeerl>
        is called for printing some information (currently the stacktrace).</p>
      </item>
      <item><p><c>{tmpdir, TempDirectory}</c> sets the directory used by
        merge join for temporary files and by option
        <c>{cache,&nbsp;list}</c>. The option also overrides
        option <c>tmpdir</c> of
        <seemfa marker="#keysort/3"><c>keysort/3</c></seemfa> and
        <seemfa marker="#sort/2"><c>sort/2</c></seemfa>.
        Defaults to <c>""</c>, which means that
        the directory returned by <c>file:get_cwd()</c> is used.</p>
      </item>
      <item><p><c>{unique_all, true}</c> adds a
        <c>{unique,&nbsp;true}</c> option to every list expression of
        the query. Defaults to <c>{unique_all,&nbsp;false}</c>.
        Option <c>unique_all</c> is equivalent to
        <c>{unique_all,&nbsp;true}</c>.</p>
      </item>
    </list>
  </section>

  <section>
    <marker id="getting_started"></marker>
    <title>Getting Started</title>
    <p>As mentioned earlier,
      queries are expressed in the list comprehension syntax as described
      in section
      <seeguide marker="system/reference_manual:expressions">Expressions</seeguide>
      in Erlang Reference Manual. In the following, some familiarity
      with list comprehensions is assumed. The examples in section
      <seeguide marker="system/programming_examples:list_comprehensions">
      List Comprehensions</seeguide> in Programming Examples can get you
      started. Notice that list comprehensions do not add any computational
      power to the language; anything that can be done with list
      comprehensions can also be done without them. But they add
      syntax for expressing simple search problems, which is compact
      and clear once you get used to it.</p>

    <p>Many list comprehension expressions can be evaluated by the
      <c>qlc</c> module. Exceptions are expressions, such that
      variables introduced in patterns (or filters) are used in some
      generator later in the list comprehension. As an example,
      consider an implementation of <c>lists:append(L)</c>:
      <c><![CDATA[[X ||Y <- L, X <- Y]]]></c>.
      <c>Y</c> is introduced in the first generator and used in the second.
      The ordinary list comprehension is normally to be preferred when
      there is a choice as to which to use. One difference is that
      <seemfa marker="#eval/1"><c>eval/1,2</c></seemfa>
      collects answers in a list that is finally
      reversed, while list comprehensions collect answers on the stack
      that is finally unwound.</p>

    <p>What the <c>qlc</c> module primarily adds to list
      comprehensions is that data can be read from QLC tables in small
      chunks. A QLC table is created by calling
      <seemfa marker="#table/2"><c>qlc:table/2</c></seemfa>.
      Usually <c>qlc:table/2</c> is not called directly from the query
      but through an interface function of some data structure.
      Erlang/OTP includes a few examples of such functions:
      <seemfa marker="mnesia:mnesia#table/1"><c>mnesia:table/1,2</c></seemfa>,
      <seemfa marker="ets#table/1"><c>ets:table/1,2</c></seemfa>, and
      <seemfa marker="dets#table/1"><c>dets:table/1,2</c></seemfa>.
      For a given data structure, many functions can create QLC tables, but
      common for these functions is that they return a query handle created by
      <seemfa marker="#table/2"><c>qlc:table/2</c></seemfa>.
      Using the QLC tables provided by Erlang/OTP is usually
      probably sufficient, but for the more advanced user section
      <seeerl marker="#implementing_a_qlc_table">Implementing a QLC
      Table</seeerl> describes the implementation of a function
      calling <c>qlc:table/2</c>.</p>

    <p>Besides <c>qlc:table/2</c>, other functions
      return query handles. They are used more seldom than tables,
      but are sometimes useful.
      <seemfa marker="#append/1"><c>qlc:append/1,2</c></seemfa> traverses
      objects from many tables or lists after each other. If, for
      example, you want to traverse all answers to a query <c>QH</c> and
      then finish off by a term <c>{finished}</c>, you can do that by
      calling <c>qlc:append(QH, [{finished}])</c>. <c>append/2</c> first
      returns all objects of <c>QH</c>, then <c>{finished}</c>. If a tuple
      <c>{finished}</c> exists among the answers to <c>QH</c>, it is
      returned twice from <c>append/2</c>.</p>

    <p>As another example, consider concatenating the answers to two
      queries <c>QH1</c> and <c>QH2</c> while removing all duplicates. This is
      accomplished by using option <c>unique</c>:</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[qlc:q([X || X <- qlc:append(QH1, QH2)], {unique, true})]]></code>

    <p>The cost is substantial: every returned answer is stored
      in an ETS table. Before returning an answer, it is looked up in
      the ETS table to check if it has already been returned. Without
      the <c>unique</c> option, all answers to <c>QH1</c> would be returned
      followed by all answers to <c>QH2</c>. The <c>unique</c> option keeps
      the order between the remaining answers.</p>

    <p>If the order of the answers is not important, there is an
      alternative to the <c>unique</c> option, namely to sort the
      answers uniquely:</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[qlc:sort(qlc:q([X || X <- qlc:append(QH1, QH2)], {unique, true})).]]></code>

    <p>This query also removes duplicates but the answers are
      sorted. If there are many answers, temporary files are used.
      Notice that to get the first unique answer, all answers
      must be found and sorted. Both alternatives find duplicates by comparing
      answers, that is, if <c>A1</c> and <c>A2</c> are answers found in
      that order, then <c>A2</c> is a removed if <c>A1 == A2</c>.</p>

    <p>To return only a few answers, cursors can be used. The following
      code returns no more than five answers using an ETS table for
      storing the unique answers:</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[C = qlc:cursor(qlc:q([X || X <- qlc:append(QH1, QH2)],{unique,true})),
R = qlc:next_answers(C, 5),
ok = qlc:delete_cursor(C),
R.]]></code>

    <p>QLCs are convenient for stating
      constraints on data from two or more tables. The following example
      does a natural join on two query handles on position 2:</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[qlc:q([{X1,X2,X3,Y1} || 
          {X1,X2,X3} <- QH1, 
          {Y1,Y2} <- QH2, 
          X2 =:= Y2])]]></code>

    <p>The <c>qlc</c> module evaluates this differently depending on the
      query handles <c>QH1</c> and <c>QH2</c>. If, for example, <c>X2</c> is
      matched against the key of a QLC table, the lookup join method
      traverses the objects of <c>QH2</c> while looking up key
      values in the table. However, if not <c>X2</c> or
      <c>Y2</c> is matched against the key or an indexed position of a
      QLC table, the merge join method ensures that <c>QH1</c>
      and <c>QH2</c> are both sorted on position 2 and next do the
      join by traversing the objects one by one.</p>

    <p>Option <c>join</c> can be used to force the <c>qlc</c> module to use
      a certain join method. For the rest of this section it is assumed
      that the excessively slow join method called "nested loop" has
      been chosen:</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[qlc:q([{X1,X2,X3,Y1} || 
          {X1,X2,X3} <- QH1, 
          {Y1,Y2} <- QH2, 
          X2 =:= Y2],
      {join, nested_loop})]]></code>

    <p>In this case the filter is applied to every possible pair
      of answers to <c>QH1</c> and <c>QH2</c>, one at a time.
      If there are M answers to <c>QH1</c> and N answers to <c>QH2</c>,
      the filter is run M*N times.</p>

    <p>If <c>QH2</c> is a call to the function for
      <seeerl marker="gb_trees"><c>gb_trees</c></seeerl>, as defined
      in section <seeerl marker="#implementing_a_qlc_table">Implementing
      a QLC Table</seeerl>, then <c>gb_table:table/1</c>, the
      iterator for the gb-tree is initiated for each answer to
      <c>QH1</c>. The objects of the gb-tree are then returned one
      by one. This is probably the most efficient way of traversing
      the table in that case, as it takes minimal computational
      power to get the following object. But if <c>QH2</c> is not a table but
      a more complicated QLC, it can be more efficient to use some RAM
      memory for collecting the answers in a cache, particularly if
      there are only a few answers. It must then be assumed that
      evaluating <c>QH2</c> has no side effects so that the meaning of the
      query does not change if <c>QH2</c> is evaluated only once. One way of
      caching the answers is to evaluate <c>QH2</c> first of all and
      substitute the list of answers for <c>QH2</c> in the query. Another way
      is to use option <c>cache</c>. It is expressed like this:</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[QH2' = qlc:q([X || X <- QH2], {cache, ets})]]></code>

    <p>or only</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[QH2' = qlc:q([X || X <- QH2], cache)]]></code>

    <p>The effect of option <c>cache</c> is that when
      generator <c>QH2'</c> is run the first time, every answer is stored in
      an ETS table. When the next answer of <c>QH1</c> is tried,
      answers to <c>QH2'</c>
      are copied from the ETS table, which is very fast. As for
      option <c>unique</c> the cost is a possibly substantial amount
      of RAM memory.</p>

    <p>Option <c>{cache,&nbsp;list}</c> offers the
      possibility to store the answers in a list on the process heap.
      This has the potential of being faster than ETS tables,
      as there is no need to copy answers from the table. However, it can
      often result in slower evaluation because of more garbage
      collections of the process heap and increased RAM memory
      consumption because of larger heaps. Another drawback with cache
      lists is that if the list size exceeds a limit, a
      temporary file is used. Reading the answers from a file is
      much slower than copying them from an ETS table. But if the
      available RAM memory is scarce, setting the <seeerl
      marker="#max_list_size">limit</seeerl> to some low value is an
      alternative.</p>

    <p>Option <c>cache_all</c> can be set to
      <c>ets</c> or <c>list</c> when evaluating a query. It adds a
      <c>cache</c> or <c>{cache,&nbsp;list}</c> option to every list
      expression except QLC tables and lists on all levels of the
      query. This can be used for testing if caching would improve
      efficiency at all. If the answer is yes, further testing is
      needed to pinpoint the generators that are to be cached.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <marker id="implementing_a_qlc_table"></marker>
    <title>Implementing a QLC Table</title>
    <p>As an example of
      how to use function <seemfa marker="#table/2"><c>table/2</c></seemfa>,
      the implementation of a QLC table for the <seeerl
      marker="gb_trees"><c>gb_trees</c></seeerl> module is given:</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[-module(gb_table).

-export([table/1]).

table(T) ->
    TF = fun() -> qlc_next(gb_trees:next(gb_trees:iterator(T))) end,
    InfoFun = fun(num_of_objects) -> gb_trees:size(T);
                 (keypos) -> 1;
                 (is_sorted_key) -> true;
                 (is_unique_objects) -> true;
                 (_) -> undefined
              end,
    LookupFun =
        fun(1, Ks) ->
                lists:flatmap(fun(K) ->
                                      case gb_trees:lookup(K, T) of
                                          {value, V} -> [{K,V}];
                                          none -> []
                                      end
                              end, Ks)
        end,
    FormatFun =
        fun({all, NElements, ElementFun}) ->
                ValsS = io_lib:format("gb_trees:from_orddict(~w)",
                                      [gb_nodes(T, NElements, ElementFun)]),
                io_lib:format("gb_table:table(~s)", [ValsS]);
           ({lookup, 1, KeyValues, _NElements, ElementFun}) ->
                ValsS = io_lib:format("gb_trees:from_orddict(~w)",
                                      [gb_nodes(T, infinity, ElementFun)]),
                io_lib:format("lists:flatmap(fun(K) -> "
                              "case gb_trees:lookup(K, ~s) of "
                              "{value, V} -> [{K,V}];none -> [] end "
                              "end, ~w)",
                              [ValsS, [ElementFun(KV) || KV <- KeyValues]])
        end,
    qlc:table(TF, [{info_fun, InfoFun}, {format_fun, FormatFun},
                   {lookup_fun, LookupFun},{key_equality,'=='}]).

qlc_next({X, V, S}) ->
    [{X,V} | fun() -> qlc_next(gb_trees:next(S)) end];
qlc_next(none) ->
    [].

gb_nodes(T, infinity, ElementFun) ->
    gb_nodes(T, -1, ElementFun);
gb_nodes(T, NElements, ElementFun) ->
    gb_iter(gb_trees:iterator(T), NElements, ElementFun).

gb_iter(_I, 0, _EFun) ->
    '...';
gb_iter(I0, N, EFun) ->
    case gb_trees:next(I0) of
        {X, V, I} ->
            [EFun({X,V}) | gb_iter(I, N-1, EFun)];
        none ->
            []
    end.]]></code>

    <p><c>TF</c> is the traversal function. The <c>qlc</c> module
      requires that there is a way of traversing all objects of the
      data structure. <c>gb_trees</c> has an iterator function
      suitable for that purpose. Notice that for each object returned, a
      new fun is created. As long as the list is not terminated by
      <c>[]</c>, it is assumed that the tail of the list is a nullary
      function and that calling the function returns further objects
      (and functions).</p>

    <p>The lookup function is optional. It is assumed that the lookup
      function always finds values much faster than it would take to
      traverse the table. The first argument is the position of the
      key. As <c>qlc_next/1</c> returns the objects as <c>{Key,&nbsp;Value}</c>
      pairs, the position is 1. Notice that the lookup function is to return
      <c>{Key,&nbsp;Value}</c> pairs, as the traversal function does.</p>

    <p>The format function is also optional. It is called by
      <seemfa marker="#info/1"><c>info/1,2</c></seemfa>
      to give feedback at runtime of how the query
      is to be evaluated. Try to give as good feedback as
      possible without showing too much details. In the example, at
      most seven objects of the table are shown. The format function
      handles two cases: <c>all</c> means that all objects of the
      table are traversed; <c>{lookup,&nbsp;1,&nbsp;KeyValues}</c>
      means that the lookup function is used for looking up key
      values.</p>

    <p>Whether the whole table is traversed or only some keys
      looked up depends on how the query is expressed. If the query has
      the form</p>

    <code type="none">
<![CDATA[qlc:q([T || P <- LE, F])]]></code>

    <p>and <c>P</c> is a tuple, the <c>qlc</c> module analyzes
      <c>P</c> and <c>F</c> in
      compile time to find positions of tuple <c>P</c> that are tested
      for equality to constants. If such a position at runtime turns
      out to be the key position, the lookup function can be used,
      otherwise all objects of the table must be traversed.
      The info function <c>InfoFun</c> returns the key position.
      There can be indexed positions as well, also returned by the
      info function. An index is an extra table that makes lookup on
      some position fast. Mnesia maintains indexes upon request,
      and introduces so called secondary keys. The <c>qlc</c>
      module prefers to look up objects using the key before secondary
      keys regardless of the number of constants to look up.</p>
  </section>

  <section>
    <title>Key Equality</title>
    <p>Erlang/OTP has two operators for testing term equality: <c>==/2</c>
      and <c>=:=/2</c>. The difference is all about the integers that can be
      represented by floats. For example, <c>2 == 2.0</c> evaluates to
      <c>true</c> while <c>2 =:= 2.0</c> evaluates to <c>false</c>.
      Normally this is a minor issue, but the <c>qlc</c> module cannot
      ignore the difference, which affects the user's choice of
      operators in QLCs.</p>

    <p>If the <c>qlc</c> module at compile time can determine that some
      constant is free of integers, it does not matter which one of
      <c>==/2</c> or <c>=:=/2</c> is used:</p>

    <pre>
1> <input>E1 = ets:new(t, [set]), % uses =:=/2 for key equality</input>
<input>Q1 = qlc:q([K ||</input>
<input>{K} &lt;- ets:table(E1),</input>
<input>K == 2.71 orelse K == a]),</input>
<input>io:format("~s~n", [qlc:info(Q1)]).</input>
ets:match_spec_run(
       lists:flatmap(fun(V) ->
			    ets:lookup(#Ref&lt;0.3098908599.2283929601.256025>,
				       V)
		     end,
		     [a, 2.71]),
       ets:match_spec_compile([{{'$1'}, [], ['$1']}]))</pre>

    <p>In the example, operator <c>==/2</c> has been handled
      exactly as <c>=:=/2</c> would have been handled. However,
      if it cannot be determined at compile time that some
      constant is free of integers, and the table uses <c>=:=/2</c>
      when comparing keys for equality (see option <seeerl
      marker="#key_equality">key_equality</seeerl>), then the
      <c>qlc</c> module does not try to look up the constant. The
      reason is that there is in the general case no upper limit on
      the number of key values that can compare equal to such a
      constant; every combination of integers and floats must be
      looked up:</p>

    <pre>
2> <input>E2 = ets:new(t, [set]),</input>
<input>true = ets:insert(E2, [{{2,2},a},{{2,2.0},b},{{2.0,2},c}]),</input>
<input>F2 = fun(I) -></input>
<input>qlc:q([V || {K,V} &lt;- ets:table(E2), K == I])</input>
<input>end,</input>
<input>Q2 = F2({2,2}),</input>
<input>io:format("~s~n", [qlc:info(Q2)]).</input>
ets:table(#Ref&lt;0.3098908599.2283929601.256125>,
          [{traverse,
            {select,
             [{{'$1', '$2'}, [{'==', '$1', {const, {2, 2}}}], ['$2']}]}}])
3> <input>lists:sort(qlc:e(Q2)).</input>
[a,b,c]</pre>

    <p>Looking up only <c>{2,2}</c> would not return <c>b</c> and
      <c>c</c>.</p>

    <p>If the table uses <c>==/2</c> when comparing keys for equality,
      the <c>qlc</c> module looks up the constant regardless of
      which operator is used in the QLC. However, <c>==/2</c> is to
      be preferred:</p>

    <pre>
4> <input>E3 = ets:new(t, [ordered_set]), % uses ==/2 for key equality</input>
<input>true = ets:insert(E3, [{{2,2.0},b}]),</input>
<input>F3 = fun(I) -></input>
<input>qlc:q([V || {K,V} &lt;- ets:table(E3), K == I])</input>
<input>end,</input>
<input>Q3 = F3({2,2}),</input>
<input>io:format("~s~n", [qlc:info(Q3)]).</input>
ets:match_spec_run(ets:lookup(#Ref&lt;0.3098908599.2283929601.256211>,
                              {2, 2}),
                   ets:match_spec_compile([{{'$1', '$2'}, [], ['$2']}]))
5> <input>qlc:e(Q3).</input>
[b]</pre>

    <p>Lookup join is handled analogously to lookup of constants in a
      table: if the join operator is <c>==/2</c>, and the table where
      constants are to be looked up uses <c>=:=/2</c> when testing
      keys for equality, then the <c>qlc</c> module does not consider
      lookup join for that table.</p>
  </section>

  <datatypes>
    <datatype>
      <name name="abstract_expr"></name>
      <desc><p>Parse trees for Erlang expression, see section <seeguide
        marker="erts:absform">The Abstract Format</seeguide>
        in the ERTS User's Guide.</p></desc>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="answer"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="answers"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="cache"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="match_expression"></name>
      <desc><p>Match&nbsp;specification, see section <seeguide
          marker="erts:match_spec">Match Specifications in Erlang</seeguide>
          in the ERTS User's Guide and <seeerl
          marker="ms_transform"><c>ms_transform(3)</c></seeerl>.</p></desc>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="no_files"></name>
      <desc><p>An integer &gt; 1.</p></desc>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="key_pos"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="max_list_size"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="order"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="order_fun"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="query_cursor"></name>
      <desc><p>A <seeerl marker="#query_cursor">query cursor</seeerl>.</p>
      </desc>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="query_handle"></name>
      <desc><p>A <seeerl marker="#query_handle">query handle</seeerl>.</p>
      </desc>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="query_handle_or_list"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="query_list_comprehension"></name>
      <desc><p>A literal
        <seeerl marker="#query_list_comprehension">query
        list comprehension</seeerl>.</p></desc>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="spawn_options"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="sort_options"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="sort_option"></name>
      <desc><p>See <seeerl
        marker="file_sorter"><c>file_sorter(3)</c></seeerl>.</p></desc>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="tmp_directory"></name>
    </datatype>
    <datatype>
      <name name="tmp_file_usage"></name>
    </datatype>
  </datatypes>

  <funcs>
    <func>
      <name name="append" arity="1" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return a query handle.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a query handle. When evaluating query handle
          <c><anno>QH</anno></c>, all answers to the first query handle in
          <c><anno>QHL</anno></c> are returned, followed by all answers
          to the remaining query handles in <c><anno>QHL</anno></c>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="append" arity="2" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return a query handle.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a query handle. When evaluating query handle
          <c><anno>QH3</anno></c>, all answers to
          <c><anno>QH1</anno></c> are returned, followed by all answers
          to <c><anno>QH2</anno></c>.</p>
        <p><c>append(QH1,&nbsp;QH2)</c> is equivalent to
          <c>append([QH1,&nbsp;QH2])</c>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="cursor" arity="1" since=""/>
      <name name="cursor" arity="2" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Create a query cursor.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Creates a query cursor and
          makes the calling process the owner of the cursor. The
          cursor is to be used as argument to
          <seemfa marker="#next_answers/1">
          <c>next_answers/1,2</c></seemfa> and (eventually)
          <seemfa marker="#delete_cursor/1"><c>delete_cursor/1</c></seemfa>.
          Calls <seemfa marker="erts:erlang#spawn_opt/2">
	  <c>erlang:spawn_opt/2</c></seemfa> to spawn and link to
	  a process that evaluates the query handle. The value of option
          <c>spawn_options</c> is used as last argument when calling
          <c>spawn_opt/2</c>. Defaults to <c>[link]</c>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <pre>
1> <input>QH = qlc:q([{X,Y} || X &lt;- [a,b], Y &lt;- [1,2]]),</input>
<input>QC = qlc:cursor(QH),</input>
<input>qlc:next_answers(QC, 1).</input>
[{a,1}]
2> <input>qlc:next_answers(QC, 1).</input>
[{a,2}]
3> <input>qlc:next_answers(QC, all_remaining).</input>
[{b,1},{b,2}]
4> <input>qlc:delete_cursor(QC).</input>
ok</pre>
        <p><c>cursor(<anno>QH</anno>)</c> is equivalent to
          <c>cursor(<anno>QH</anno>, [])</c>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="delete_cursor" arity="1" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Delete a query cursor.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Deletes a query cursor. Only the owner of the cursor can
          delete the cursor.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="e" arity="1" since=""/>
      <name name="e" arity="2" since=""/>
      <name name="eval" arity="1" since=""/>
      <name name="eval" arity="2" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return all answers to a query.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Evaluates a query handle in the
          calling process and collects all answers in a list.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <pre>
1> <input>QH = qlc:q([{X,Y} || X &lt;- [a,b], Y &lt;- [1,2]]),</input>
<input>qlc:eval(QH).</input>
[{a,1},{a,2},{b,1},{b,2}]</pre>
        <p><c>eval(<anno>QH</anno>)</c> is equivalent to
          <c>eval(<anno>QH</anno>, [])</c>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="fold" arity="3" since=""/>
      <name name="fold" arity="4" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Fold a function over the answers to a query.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Calls <c><anno>Function</anno></c> on successive answers to
          the query handle together with an extra argument
          <c><anno>AccIn</anno></c>. The query handle and the function
          are evaluated in the calling process.
          <c><anno>Function</anno></c> must return a new accumulator,
          which is passed to the next call.
          <c><anno>Acc0</anno></c> is returned if there are no answers
          to the query handle.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <pre>
1> <input>QH = [1,2,3,4,5,6],</input>
<input>qlc:fold(fun(X, Sum) -> X + Sum end, 0, QH).</input>
21</pre>
        <p><c>fold(<anno>Function</anno>, <anno>Acc0</anno>,
          <anno>QH</anno>)</c> is equivalent to
          <c>fold(<anno>Function</anno>, <anno>Acc0</anno>,
          <anno>QH</anno>, [])</c>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="format_error" arity="1" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return an English description of a an error tuple.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a descriptive string in English of an error tuple
          returned by some of the functions of the <c>qlc</c> module
          or the parse transform. This function is mainly used by the
          compiler invoking the parse transform.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="info" arity="1" since=""/>
      <name name="info" arity="2" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return code describing a query handle.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns information about a
          query handle. The information describes the simplifications
          and optimizations that are the results of preparing the
          query for evaluation. This function is probably mainly useful
          during debugging.</p>
        <p>The information has the form of an Erlang expression where
          QLCs most likely occur. Depending on the format functions of
          mentioned QLC tables, it is not certain that the information
          is absolutely accurate.</p>
        <p>Options:</p>
        <list type="bulleted">
          <item>
            <p>The default is to return a sequence of QLCs in a block, but
              if option <c>{flat,&nbsp;false}</c> is specified, one single
              QLC is returned.</p>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>The default is to return a string, but if
              option <c>{format,&nbsp;abstract_code}</c> is specified,
              abstract code is returned instead. In the abstract code,
              port identifiers, references, and pids are represented by
              strings.</p>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>The default is to return all elements in lists, but if
              option <c>{n_elements,&nbsp;NElements}</c> is specified, only
              a limited number of elements are returned.</p>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>The default is to show all parts of
	      objects and match specifications,
              but if option <c>{depth,&nbsp;Depth}</c> is specified, parts
              of terms below a certain depth are replaced by <c>'...'</c>.</p>
          </item>
        </list>
        <p><c>info(<anno>QH</anno>)</c> is equivalent to
          <c>info(<anno>QH</anno>, [])</c>.</p>
        <p><em>Examples:</em></p>
        <p>In the following example two simple QLCs are inserted only to
          hold option <c>{unique,&nbsp;true}</c>:</p>
        <pre>
1> <input>QH = qlc:q([{X,Y} || X &lt;- [x,y], Y &lt;- [a,b]]),</input>
<input>io:format("~s~n", [qlc:info(QH, unique_all)]).</input>
begin
    V1 =
        qlc:q([
               SQV ||
                   SQV &lt;- [x, y]
              ],
              [{unique, true}]),
    V2 =
        qlc:q([
               SQV ||
                   SQV &lt;- [a, b]
              ],
              [{unique, true}]),
    qlc:q([
           {X,Y} ||
               X &lt;- V1,
               Y &lt;- V2
          ],
          [{unique, true}])
end</pre>
        <p>In the following example QLC <c>V2</c> has
          been inserted to show the joined generators and the join
          method chosen. A convention is used for lookup join: the
          first generator (<c>G2</c>) is the one traversed, the second
          (<c>G1</c>) is the table where constants are looked up.</p>
        <pre>
1> <input>E1 = ets:new(e1, []),</input>
<input>E2 = ets:new(e2, []),</input>
<input>true = ets:insert(E1, [{1,a},{2,b}]),</input>
<input>true = ets:insert(E2, [{a,1},{b,2}]),</input>
<input>Q = qlc:q([{X,Z,W} ||</input>
<input>{X, Z} &lt;- ets:table(E1),</input>
<input>{W, Y} &lt;- ets:table(E2),</input>
<input>X =:= Y]),</input>
<input>io:format("~s~n", [qlc:info(Q)]).</input>
begin
    V1 =
        qlc:q([
               P0 ||
                   P0 = {W, Y} &lt;-
                       ets:table(#Ref&lt;0.3098908599.2283929601.256549>)
              ]),
    V2 =
        qlc:q([
               [G1 | G2] ||
                   G2 &lt;- V1,
                   G1 &lt;-
                       ets:table(#Ref&lt;0.3098908599.2283929601.256548>),
                   element(2, G1) =:= element(1, G2)
              ],
              [{join, lookup}]),
    qlc:q([
           {X, Z, W} ||
               [{X, Z} | {W, Y}] &lt;- V2
          ])
end</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="keysort" arity="2" since=""/>
      <name name="keysort" arity="3" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return a query handle.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a query handle. When evaluating query handle
          <c><anno>QH2</anno></c>, the answers to query handle
          <c><anno>QH1</anno></c> are sorted by <seemfa
          marker="file_sorter#keysort/4"><c>file_sorter:keysort/4</c></seemfa>
          according to the options.</p>
        <p>The sorter uses temporary files only if
          <c><anno>QH1</anno></c> does not evaluate to a list and the
          size of the binary representation of the answers exceeds
          <c>Size</c> bytes, where <c>Size</c> is the value of option
          <c>size</c>.</p>
        <p><c>keysort(<anno>KeyPos</anno>, <anno>QH1</anno>)</c>
          is equivalent to
          <c>keysort(<anno>KeyPos</anno>, <anno>QH1</anno>, [])</c>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="next_answers" arity="1" since=""/>
      <name name="next_answers" arity="2" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return some or all answers to a query.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns some or all of the remaining answers to a query
          cursor. Only the owner of <c><anno>QueryCursor</anno></c> can
          retrieve answers.</p>
        <p>Optional argument <c>NumberOfAnswers</c> determines the
          maximum number of answers returned. Defaults to
          <c>10</c>. If less than the requested number of answers is
          returned, subsequent calls to <c>next_answers</c>
          return <c>[]</c>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="q" arity="1" since=""/>
      <name name="q" arity="2" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return a handle for a query list comprehension.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a query handle for a QLC.
          The QLC must be the first argument to this function, otherwise
          it is evaluated as an ordinary list comprehension. It is also
          necessary to add the following line to the source code:</p>
        <code type="none">
-include_lib("stdlib/include/qlc.hrl").</code>
        <p>This causes a parse transform to substitute a fun for the QLC. The
          (compiled) fun is called when the query handle is evaluated.</p>
        <p>When calling <c>qlc:q/1,2</c> from the Erlang shell, the
          parse transform is automatically called. When this occurs, the fun
          substituted for the QLC is not compiled but is evaluated by
          <seeerl marker="erl_eval"><c>erl_eval(3)</c></seeerl>. This
          is also true when expressions are evaluated by
          <c>file:eval/1,2</c> or in the debugger.</p>
        <p>To be explicit, this does not work:</p>
        <pre>
...
A = [X || {X} &lt;- [{1},{2}]],
QH = qlc:q(A),
...</pre>
        <p>Variable <c>A</c> is bound to the evaluated value
          of the list comprehension (<c>[1,2]</c>). The compiler
          complains with an error message ("argument is not a query
          list comprehension"); the shell process stops with a
          <c>badarg</c> reason.</p>
        <p><c>q(<anno>QLC</anno>)</c> is equivalent to
          <c>q(<anno>QLC</anno>, [])</c>.</p>
        <p>Options:</p>
        <list type="bulleted">
          <item>
            <p>Option <c>{cache,&nbsp;ets}</c> can be used to cache
              the answers to a QLC. The answers are stored in one ETS
              table for each cached QLC. When a cached QLC is
              evaluated again, answers are fetched from the table without
              any further computations. Therefore, when all answers to a
              cached QLC have been found, the ETS tables used for
              caching answers to the qualifiers of the QLC can be emptied.
              Option <c>cache</c> is equivalent to <c>{cache,&nbsp;ets}</c>.</p>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>Option <c>{cache,&nbsp;list}</c> can be used to cache
              the answers to a QLC like
              <c>{cache,&nbsp;ets}</c>. The difference is that the answers
              are kept in a list (on the process heap). If the answers
              would occupy more than a certain amount of RAM memory, a
              temporary file is used for storing the answers. Option
              <c>max_list_size</c> sets the limit in bytes and the temporary
              file is put on the directory set by option <c>tmpdir</c>.</p>
            <p>Option <c>cache</c> has no effect if it is known that
              the QLC is to be evaluated at most once.
              This is always true for the top-most QLC
              and also for the list expression of the first
              generator in a list of qualifiers. Notice that in the presence
              of side effects in filters or callback functions, the answers
              to QLCs can be affected by option <c>cache</c>.</p>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>Option <c>{unique,&nbsp;true}</c> can be used to remove
              duplicate answers to a QLC. The unique
              answers are stored in one ETS table for each QLC.
              The table is emptied every time it is known
              that there are no more answers to the QLC.
              Option <c>unique</c> is equivalent to
              <c>{unique,&nbsp;true}</c>. If option <c>unique</c> is
              combined with option <c>{cache,&nbsp;ets}</c>, two ETS
              tables are used, but the full answers are stored in one
              table only. If option <c>unique</c> is combined with option
              <c>{cache,&nbsp;list}</c>, the answers are sorted
              twice using
              <seemfa marker="#keysort/3"><c>keysort/3</c></seemfa>;
              once to remove duplicates and once to restore the order.</p>
          </item>
        </list>
        <p>Options <c>cache</c> and <c>unique</c> apply not only
          to the QLC itself but also to the results of looking up constants,
          running match specifications, and joining handles.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <p>In the following example the cached results of the merge join are
          traversed for each value of <c>A</c>. Notice that without option
          <c>cache</c> the join would have been carried out
          three times, once for each value of <c>A</c>.</p>
        <pre>
1> <input>Q = qlc:q([{A,X,Z,W} ||</input>
<input>A &lt;- [a,b,c],</input>
<input>{X,Z} &lt;- [{a,1},{b,4},{c,6}],</input>
<input>{W,Y} &lt;- [{2,a},{3,b},{4,c}],</input>
<input>X =:= Y],</input>
<input>{cache, list}),</input>
<input>io:format("~s~n", [qlc:info(Q)]).</input>
begin
    V1 =
        qlc:q([
               P0 ||
                   P0 = {X, Z} &lt;-
                       qlc:keysort(1, [{a, 1}, {b, 4}, {c, 6}], [])
              ]),
    V2 =
        qlc:q([
               P0 ||
                   P0 = {W, Y} &lt;-
                       qlc:keysort(2, [{2, a}, {3, b}, {4, c}], [])
              ]),
    V3 =
        qlc:q([
               [G1 | G2] ||
                   G1 &lt;- V1,
                   G2 &lt;- V2,
                   element(1, G1) == element(2, G2)
              ],
              [{join, merge}, {cache, list}]),
    qlc:q([
           {A, X, Z, W} ||
               A &lt;- [a, b, c],
               [{X, Z} | {W, Y}] &lt;- V3,
               X =:= Y
          ])
end</pre>
        <p><seemfa marker="#sort/1"><c>sort/1,2</c></seemfa> and
          <seemfa marker="#keysort/2"><c>keysort/2,3</c></seemfa>
          can also be used for
          caching answers and for removing duplicates. When sorting
          answers are cached in a list, possibly stored on a temporary
          file, and no ETS tables are used.</p>
        <p>Sometimes (see <seemfa
          marker="#table/2"><c>table/2</c></seemfa>) traversal
          of tables can be done by looking up key values, which is
          assumed to be fast. Under certain (rare) circumstances
          there can be too many key values to look up.
          <marker id="max_lookup"></marker>
          Option <c>{max_lookup,&nbsp;MaxLookup}</c> can then be used
          to limit the number of lookups: if more than
          <c>MaxLookup</c> lookups would be required, no lookups are
          done but the table is traversed instead. Defaults to
          <c>infinity</c>, which means that there is no limit on the
          number of keys to look up.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <p>In the following example, using the <c>gb_table</c> module from
          section <seeerl marker="#implementing_a_qlc_table">Implementing a
          QLC Table</seeerl>, there are six keys to look up:
          <c>{1,a}</c>, <c>{1,b}</c>, <c>{1,c}</c>, <c>{2,a}</c>,
          <c>{2,b}</c>, and <c>{2,c}</c>. The reason is that the two
          elements of key <c>{X,&nbsp;Y}</c> are compared separately.</p>
        <pre>
1> <input>T = gb_trees:empty(),</input>
<input>QH = qlc:q([X || {{X,Y},_} &lt;- gb_table:table(T),</input>
<input>((X == 1) or (X == 2)) andalso</input>
<input>((Y == a) or (Y == b) or (Y == c))]),</input>
<input>io:format("~s~n", [qlc:info(QH)]).</input>
ets:match_spec_run(
       lists:flatmap(fun(K) ->
                            case
                                gb_trees:lookup(K,
                                                gb_trees:from_orddict([]))
                            of
                                {value, V} ->
                                    [{K, V}];
                                none ->
                                    []
                            end
                     end,
                     [{1, a},
                      {1, b},
                      {1, c},
                      {2, a},
                      {2, b},
                      {2, c}]),
       ets:match_spec_compile([{{{'$1', '$2'}, '_'},
                                [],
                                ['$1']}]))</pre>
        <p>Options:</p>
        <list type="bulleted">
          <item>
            <p>Option <c>{lookup,&nbsp;true}</c> can be used to ensure
              that the <c>qlc</c> module looks up constants in some
              QLC table. If there are more than one QLC table among the
              list expressions of the generators,
              constants must be looked up in at least one
              of the tables. The evaluation of the query fails if there
              are no constants to look up. This option is useful
              when it would be unacceptable to traverse all
              objects in some table. Setting option <c>lookup</c> to
              <c>false</c> ensures that no constants are looked up
              (<c>{max_lookup,&nbsp;0}</c> has the same effect).
              Defaults to <c>any</c>, which means that constants are
              looked up whenever possible.</p>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>Option <c>{join,&nbsp;Join}</c> can be used to ensure
              that a certain join method is used:</p>
            <list type="bulleted">
              <item><c>{join,&nbsp;lookup}</c> invokes the lookup join
                method.</item>
              <item><c>{join,&nbsp;merge}</c> invokes the merge join
                method.</item>
              <item><c>{join,&nbsp;nested_loop}</c> invokes the method of
                matching every pair of objects from two handles. This
                method is mostly very slow.</item>
            </list>
            <p>The evaluation of the query fails if the <c>qlc</c> module
              cannot carry out the chosen join method. Defaults to
              <c>any</c>, which means that some fast join
              method is used if possible.</p>
          </item>
        </list>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="sort" arity="1" since=""/>
      <name name="sort" arity="2" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return a query handle.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a query handle. When evaluating query handle
          <c><anno>QH2</anno></c>, the answers to query handle
          <c><anno>QH1</anno></c> are sorted by <seemfa
          marker="file_sorter#sort/3"><c>file_sorter:sort/3</c></seemfa>
          according to the options.</p>
        <p>The sorter uses temporary files only if
          <c><anno>QH1</anno></c> does not evaluate to a list and the
          size of the binary representation of the answers exceeds
          <c>Size</c> bytes, where <c>Size</c> is the value of option
          <c>size</c>.</p>
        <p><c>sort(<anno>QH1</anno>)</c> is equivalent to
          <c>sort(<anno>QH1</anno>, [])</c>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="string_to_handle" arity="1" since=""/>
      <name name="string_to_handle" arity="2" since=""/>
      <name name="string_to_handle" arity="3" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return a handle for a query list comprehension.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>A string version of <seemfa marker="#q/1"><c>q/1,2</c></seemfa>.
          When the query handle is evaluated, the fun created by the parse
          transform is interpreted by
          <seeerl marker="erl_eval"><c>erl_eval(3)</c></seeerl>.
          The query string is to be one single QLC terminated by a period.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <pre>
1> <input>L = [1,2,3],</input>
<input>Bs = erl_eval:add_binding('L', L, erl_eval:new_bindings()),</input>
<input>QH = qlc:string_to_handle("[X+1 || X &lt;- L].", [], Bs),</input>
<input>qlc:eval(QH).</input>
[2,3,4]</pre>
        <p><c>string_to_handle(<anno>QueryString</anno>)</c>
          is equivalent to
          <c>string_to_handle(<anno>QueryString</anno>, [])</c>.</p>
        <p><c>string_to_handle(<anno>QueryString</anno>,
          <anno>Options</anno>)</c> is equivalent to
          <c>string_to_handle(<anno>QueryString</anno>,
          <anno>Options</anno>, erl_eval:new_bindings())</c>.</p>
        <p>This function is probably mainly useful when called from
          outside of Erlang, for example from a driver written in C.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="table" arity="2" since=""/>
      <fsummary>Return a query handle for a table.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a query handle for a QLC table.
          In Erlang/OTP there is support for ETS, Dets, and
          Mnesia tables, but many other data structures can be turned
          into QLC tables. This is accomplished by letting function(s) in the
          module implementing the data structure create a query handle by
          calling <c>qlc:table/2</c>. The different ways to traverse the table
          and properties of the table are handled by callback
          functions provided as options to <c>qlc:table/2</c>.</p>
        <list type="bulleted">
          <item>
            <p>Callback function <c><anno>TraverseFun</anno></c> is
              used for traversing the table. It is to return a list of
              objects terminated by either <c>[]</c> or a nullary fun to
              be used for traversing the not yet traversed objects of the
              table. Any other return value is immediately returned as
              value of the query evaluation. Unary
              <c><anno>TraverseFun</anno></c>s are to accept a match
              specification as argument. The match specification is
              created by the parse transform by analyzing the pattern of
              the generator calling <c>qlc:table/2</c> and filters using
              variables introduced in the pattern. If the parse transform
              cannot find a match specification equivalent to the pattern
              and filters, <c><anno>TraverseFun</anno></c> is called
              with a match specification returning every object.</p>
            <list type="bulleted">
              <item>
                <p>Modules that can use match specifications for optimized
                  traversal of tables are to call <c>qlc:table/2</c> with an unary
                  <c><anno>TraverseFun</anno></c>. An example is
                  <seemfa marker="ets#table/2">
                  <c>ets:table/2</c></seemfa>.</p>
              </item>
              <item>
                <p>Other modules can provide a nullary
                  <c><anno>TraverseFun</anno></c>. An example is
                  <c>gb_table:table/1</c> in section
                  <seeerl marker="#implementing_a_qlc_table">Implementing a
                  QLC Table</seeerl>.</p>
              </item>
            </list>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>Unary callback function <c><anno>PreFun</anno></c> is
              called once before the table is read for the first time.
              If the call fails, the query evaluation fails.</p>
            <p>Argument <c><anno>PreArgs</anno></c> is a list of tagged values.
              There are two tags, <c>parent_value</c> and <c>stop_fun</c>, used
              by Mnesia for managing transactions.</p>
            <list type="bulleted">
              <item>
                <p>The value of <c>parent_value</c> is
                  the value returned by <c><anno>ParentFun</anno></c>, or
                  <c>undefined</c> if there is no <c>ParentFun</c>.
                  <c><anno>ParentFun</anno></c> is called once just before the
                  call of <c><anno>PreFun</anno></c> in the context of the
                  process calling
		  <seemfa marker="#eval/1"><c>eval/1,2</c></seemfa>,
		  <seemfa marker="#fold/3"><c>fold/3,4</c></seemfa>, or
		  <seemfa marker="#cursor/1"><c>cursor/1,2</c></seemfa>.
                </p>
              </item>
              <item>
                <p>The value of <c>stop_fun</c> is a nullary fun
                  that deletes the cursor if called from the parent, or
                  <c>undefined</c> if there is no cursor.</p>
              </item>
            </list>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>Nullary callback function
              <c><anno>PostFun</anno></c> is called once after the table
              was last read. The return value, which is caught, is ignored.
              If <c><anno>PreFun</anno></c> has been called for a table,
              <c><anno>PostFun</anno></c> is guaranteed to be called for
              that table, even if the evaluation of the query fails for
              some reason.</p>
            <p>The pre (post) functions for different tables are evaluated in
              unspecified order.</p>
            <p>Other table access than reading, such as calling
              <c><anno>InfoFun</anno></c>, is assumed to be OK at any time.</p>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p><marker id="lookup_fun"></marker>Binary callback
              function <c><anno>LookupFun</anno></c> is used for looking
              up objects in the table. The first argument
              <c><anno>Position</anno></c> is the key position or an
              indexed position and the second argument
              <c><anno>Keys</anno></c> is a sorted list of unique values.
              The return value is to be a list of all objects (tuples),
              such that the element at <c>Position</c> is a member of
              <c><anno>Keys</anno></c>. Any other return value is
              immediately returned as value of the query evaluation.
              <c><anno>LookupFun</anno></c> is called instead of
              traversing the table if the parse transform at compile time
              can determine that the filters match and compare the element
              at <c><anno>Position</anno></c> in such a way that only
              <c><anno>Keys</anno></c> need to be looked up to
              find all potential answers.</p>
            <p>The key position is obtained by calling
              <c><anno>InfoFun</anno>(keypos)</c> and the indexed
              positions by calling
              <c><anno>InfoFun</anno>(indices)</c>. If the key position
              can be used for lookup, it is always chosen, otherwise the
              indexed position requiring the least number of lookups is
              chosen. If there is a tie between two indexed positions, the
              one occurring first in the list returned by
              <c><anno>InfoFun</anno></c> is chosen. Positions requiring
              more than <seeerl marker="#max_lookup">max_lookup</seeerl>
              lookups are ignored.</p>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>Unary callback function <c><anno>InfoFun</anno></c> is
              to return information about the table. <c>undefined</c>
              is to be returned if the value of some tag is unknown:</p>
            <taglist>
              <tag><c>indices</c></tag>
              <item>Returns a list of indexed positions, a list of positive
                integers.</item>
              <tag><c>is_unique_objects</c></tag>
              <item>Returns <c>true</c> if the objects returned by
                <c>TraverseFun</c> are unique.
              </item>
              <tag><c>keypos</c></tag>
              <item>Returns the position of the table key, a positive integer.
              </item>
              <tag><c>is_sorted_key</c></tag>
              <item>Returns <c>true</c> if the objects returned by
                <c>TraverseFun</c> are sorted on the key.
              </item>
              <tag><c>num_of_objects</c></tag>
              <item>Returns the number of objects in the table, a non-negative
                integer.
              </item>
            </taglist>
          </item>
          <item>
            <p>Unary callback function <c><anno>FormatFun</anno></c>
              is used by <seemfa marker="#info/1"><c>info/1,2</c></seemfa>
              for displaying the call that created the query handle of the
              table. Defaults to <c>undefined</c>, which means that
              <c>info/1,2</c> displays a call to <c>'$MOD':'$FUN'/0</c>.
              It is up to <c><anno>FormatFun</anno></c> to present the
              selected objects of the table in a suitable way. However, if
              a character list is chosen for presentation, it must be an
              Erlang expression that can be scanned and parsed (a trailing
              dot is added by <c>info/1,2</c> though).</p>
            <p><c><anno>FormatFun</anno></c> is called with an argument
              that describes the selected objects based on optimizations
              done as a result of analyzing the filters of the QLC where
              the call to <c>qlc:table/2</c> occurs. The argument can have the
              following values:</p>
            <taglist>
              <tag><c>{lookup, Position, Keys, NElements, DepthFun}</c>.</tag>
              <item>
                <p><c>LookupFun</c> is used for looking up objects in the
                  table.</p>
              </item>
              <tag><c>{match_spec, MatchExpression}</c></tag>
              <item>
                <p>No way of finding all possible answers by looking up keys
                  was found, but the filters could be transformed into a
                  match specification. All answers are found by calling
                  <c>TraverseFun(MatchExpression)</c>.</p>
              </item>
              <tag><c>{all, NElements, DepthFun}</c></tag>
              <item>
                <p>No optimization was found. A match specification matching
                  all objects is used if <c>TraverseFun</c> is unary.</p>
		<p><c>NElements</c> is the value of the <c>info/1,2</c> option
		  <c>n_elements</c>.</p>
		<p><c>DepthFun</c> is a function that can be used for
		  limiting the size of terms; calling
		  <c>DepthFun(Term)</c> substitutes <c>'...'</c> for
		  parts of <c>Term</c> below the depth specified by the
		  <c>info/1,2</c> option <c>depth</c>.</p>
                <p>If calling <c><anno>FormatFun</anno></c> with an
                  argument including <c>NElements</c> and
                  <c>DepthFun</c> fails, <c><anno>FormatFun</anno></c>
                  is called once again with an argument excluding
                  <c>NElements</c> and <c>DepthFun</c>
                  (<c>{lookup,&nbsp;Position,&nbsp;Keys}</c> or
                  <c>all</c>).</p>
              </item>
            </taglist>
          </item>
          <item><p><marker id="key_equality"></marker>The value of option
            <c>key_equality</c> is to be <c>'=:='</c> if the table
            considers two keys equal if they match, and to be
            <c>'=='</c> if two keys are equal if they compare equal.
            Defaults to <c>'=:='</c>.</p>
          </item>
        </list>
        <p>For the various options recognized by <c>table/1,2</c>
	  in respective module, see
          <seemfa marker="ets#table/1"><c>ets(3)</c></seemfa>,
          <seemfa marker="dets#table/1"><c>dets(3)</c></seemfa>, and
          <seemfa marker="mnesia:mnesia#table/1"><c>mnesia(3)</c></seemfa>.
        </p>
      </desc>
    </func>
  </funcs>

  <section>
    <title>See Also</title>
    <p><seeerl marker="dets"><c>dets(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="erl_eval"><c>erl_eval(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="erts:erlang"><c>erlang(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="kernel:error_logger"><c>error_logger(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="ets"><c>ets(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="kernel:file"><c>file(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="file_sorter"><c>file_sorter(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="mnesia:mnesia"><c>mnesia(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeerl marker="shell"><c>shell(3)</c></seeerl>,
      <seeguide marker="system/reference_manual:index">
        Erlang Reference Manual</seeguide>,
      <seeguide marker="system/programming_examples:index">
        Programming Examples</seeguide></p>
  </section>
</erlref>
